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  • Virtual exhibition

    Imperial tombs were constructed to resemble imperial palaces, with areas dedicated to guards, concubines, kitchens, dancers, and of course burial chambers. Members of the royal family were buried with their most valuable possessions, and in some cases people would be sacrificed to be buried with them. The exhibition is structured to reflect a typical tomb layout and features over 350 treasures. Please use the arrows to explore.

  • Guardians of the Afterlife

  • Guardians of the Afterlife

  • Social Status

  • Social Status

  • Bathroom

  • Bathroom

  • Protection

  • Protection

  • Courtly Entertainment

  • Courtly Entertainment

  • Courtly Entertainment

  • Kitchen

  • Kitchen

  • Nanyue Burial Chamber

  • Nanyue Burial Chamber

  • Nanyue Burial Chamber

  • Xuzhou Burial Chamber

  • Xuzhou Burial Chamber

  • Xuzhou Burial Chamber

Exhibit

Earthenware cavalryman on horseback with inscription of ‘feiji’

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Height: 59 cm
Excavated at Shizishan in 1984
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province


This sculpture of a cavalryman riding on a horse was one of the most extraordinary finds from the earthenware army at Shizishan. The horse was moulded in three parts: the head, body and four legs.The cavalryman wears two high-collared robes that fasten on the right.The lower section of the figure was made as part of the horse’s body and his legs were inserted after being produced separately. An inscription of two Chinese characters, feiji, meaning speedy horse, was found on the horse’s abdomen.

Painted earthenware figures holding weapons

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Height: 48 cm, 51 cm
Excavated at the tomb of the King of Chu at Beidongshan in 1986
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province


These figures wear a V-neck robe fastened on the right, a belt, a sword or knife with a ring handle on the left chest and a pair of shoes with upward-curving toes. They have various kinds of moustaches and their fists are joined at the waist on the right presumably to hold a long weapon such as a halberd. Traces of painted wood remain inside the hands. A hook is sometimes added to the belt and a silk ribbon is tied in a knot at the waist. Attached to the ribbon is a rectangular container containing a seal carved with the characters Langzhong. The post of Langzhong was already in existence in the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 bc). During the early Western Han, a Langzhong served not only the emperor, but also vassals, since the system of the court in nobles’ fiefdoms followed that of the capital. The post could be either of civil or military ranking, serving in a palace and being close to the emperor or king.

Coins (bazhu, sizhu, yujia banliang, wuzhu, daquan wushi, huoquan, dabu huangqian)

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Diameter: 1.9–3.0 cm
Excavated at tombs of the Kings of Chu at Beidongshan in 1986, Shizishan in 1994–5 and Woniushan in 1980
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

 

These selected examples are from a huge quantity of coins unearthed at the tombs of the Kings of Chu in the Xuzhou area. Most of them were found at the Beidongshan site, of which about 52,640 were well preserved, and at the Shizishan site, where more than 176,000 banliang coins were found. Some of those coins were probably funeral money, not coinage for circulation, as they were never recorded in use.

The selection of coins in the exhibition includes bazhu, sizhu, yujia banliang, wuzhu, daquan wushi, huoquan, and dabu huangqian, covering the coinage issued from the Warring States period (476–221 bc) through to the Wang Mang interregnum (ad 8–23). The first three are all categorized as banliang coinage but represent different periods of time.

The Qin state (778–207 bc) first issued the banliang coin, which was round with a square hole in the middle, in 336 bc. As the new Qin empire standardized the coinage throughout its conquered territory, the dominance of the banliang was not only essential for the effective running of the state administration, but also politically symbolic of unification.

The subsequent Han dynasty adopted the Qin coinage along with many other practices but essentially managed to make gradual alterations to ensure the long-term survival of the empire. Banliang coins were used from the beginning of the Han dynasty until Emperor Wudi’s reign (141–87 bc) when the new wuzhu coins were issued, signalling a start of the central court’s monopoly of coin production. Although banliang means half a liang, or twelve zhu, the actual weight of different types of banliang coins varies enormously.

During the Wang Mang interregnum, there were four large-scale coinage reforms. The emperor tried to revive ancient forms of coinage. Both dabu huangqian and huoquan were spade money (an ancient form of money modelled on farming tools) that used to be popular in the pre-Qin era. The four coinage reforms created very complicated and confusing monetary systems. Under the Eastern Han, when the Liu clan reclaimed the throne, the wuzhu coinage was re-established. Although the coins issued during Wang Mang’s reign represented an untidy economy, they were beautifully made. The craftsmanship of the coins and the calligraphy of the inscriptions are considered to be fine examples of the art of the period and are still highly sought after by collectors today.

Bronze canopy-supporting pole for a chariot

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Length: 40 cm; Diameter: 5.5 cm
Excavated at Xianggangshan in 1983
The Museum of the King of Nanyue, Guangdong Province

 

Horses and chariots were often found in royal or noble burials in the Western Han dynasty. Due to the small size of this tomb, only chariot fittings and ornaments were discovered, mainly from the western chamber, and a model chariot made of lacquer in the tomb pathway. There are fragments of a bamboo basket around some of the fittings, indicating that they were put into a container when buried.

This bronze pole, beautifully decorated with inlaid gold and silver cloud motifs, was originally wrapped in silk, which had completely carbonized. It was part of the shaft supporting the canopy covering on a chariot . A complete section consists of one pole and two wooden cores. Each core has a round projection at one end and a carved hole at the other, which fitted into the other sections. A very similar pole was found in the horse and chariot pit of the First Emperor’s tomb.

Bronze mirror

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Diameter: 26.6 cm
Excavated at Xianggangshan in 1983
The Museum of the King of Nanyue, Guangdong Province

The outer border of this mirror is composed of a series of sixteen arc-shaped sections, a pattern commonly found in Han dynasty bronze mirrors. Mirrors with fewer than sixteen arcs have also been found, but those with borders composed of more than sixteen arcs are extremely rare.

Both the outer and the inner portions of the design show alternating dragon and phoenix motifs. The dragons and phoenixes in the inner circle are symmetrical, but each dragon and phoenix in the outer circle has a unique form distinct from all the others. These dragons and phoenixes are shown in relief against a background of solid and dotted lines in a diamond-shaped grid pattern.

Exfoliator

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Length: 20 cm; Diameter: 4.5–5 cm
Excavated at Shizishan in 1994–5
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

Two pumice-like skin exfoliators of unknown composition were found inside the silver basin in the second western chamber of Shizishan. The round ‘stone’ (shown here) has a simple geometric design. One like it was found in the tomb of a king of Guangling at Gaoyou, Jiangsu. A plainer stone was also found, which has a wide middle section with narrower ends and a plain surface. It is slightly lighter in weight than the round one. A similarly shaped piece made from basalt was found in the tomb of a Zhongshan king at Mancheng, Hebei. These types of exfoliators were probably most popular during the Han period.

Iron spearhead inlaid with gold and silver

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Spear length: 27.3 cm; Ferrule length: 14.1 cm
Excavated at Xianggangshan in 1983
The Museum of the King of Nanyue, Guangdong Province

 

This iron spear and bronze ferrule were discovered among a bundle of five spears carefully wrapped in a piece of textile under the west wall of the king’s coffin chamber. The spearhead had eroded so badly that it was stuck to the sheath. The sheath near the point of the blade was broken and the bamboo base inside was partially exposed. The blade was attached to a bronze cylinder decorated with an inlaid gold and silver triangle pattern on the front and back, and a flowing cloud design on both sides. The bronze ferrule was also inlaid with beautiful gold and silver flowing clouds motifs.

According to archaeological evidence, during the second century bc there appears to have been an increasing tendency to replace bronze weapons with those made of iron due to the cheaper material and the development of iron metallurgy. The iron to bronze weapon ratio in the King of Nanyue’s tomb is 1 to 4.2. The transition from bronze to iron seems to have happened by the end of the Western Han period, two hundred years earlier than Chinese scholars used to believe.

Jade dagger-axe

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Width: 17.2 cm; Height: 11.2 cm
Excavated at Shizishan in 1994–5
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

 

A translucent jade dagger-axe is carved in the shape of a bronze weapon (ge). The jade has been identified as originating from Khotan. The surface of this dagger-axe is decorated with interlinked scrolls in low relief. A feline dragon was incised on the tang, and another dragon with wide-open jaws was carved below the arc in openwork style.

The use of jade, rather than bronze or iron, for the dagger-axe suggests that it was not designed as a weapon for use by the living. Jade weapons buried in tombs may have had a similar function to their bronze or iron counterparts but would also have been expected to provide protection against evil forces of the spirit world. Two other jade dagger-axes were found in the tombs of the King of Liang at Yongcheng, Henan Province, and of the King of Lu at Qufu, Shandong Province; both locations are geographically close to Xuzhou. This piece from Shizishan, Xuzhou, however, is the best in terms of the quality of jade material used, the skill of carving and its overall design.

Earthenware dancing figure

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Height: 47–9 cm
Excavated at the tomb of the King of Chu at Tuolanshan in 1989–90
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

 

Exquisite dancers and musician figures found at Tuolanshan provide a fascinating insight into the rich, colourful life of the Han.

This lively dancing figure has both arms raised on either side and the body is posed in a graceful S-shape bending to the left. The flowing arms and sleeves were moulded separately. Both arms have been carved with the character wu (five) on the front and back. The performance seems to be a popular Chu dance of the period that featured long waving sleeves and swaying movements.

Earthenware Musician

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Height: 47–9 cm
Excavated at the tomb of the King of Chu at Tuolanshan in 1989–90
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

 

The se player sits on her knees with her body leaning slightly forward. Both arms are outstretched as if playing the instrument. An earthenware se was discovered with the figure. A se (an ancient Chinese musical instrument) is a twenty-five-stringed plucked instrument, rather like a zither. The realistic depiction of the se provides important information for the study of Han musical instruments.

Earthenware percussion instruments in the shape of fish

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Length: 12.3 cm
Excavated at Xianggangshan in 1983
The Museum of the King of Nanyue, Guangdong Province

Fish-shaped percussion instruments, nine in total, were excavated from the rear storeroom. The surfaces of the fish are marked with small round patterns that resemble scales. Two incised lines at the head of each fish represent the gill lids and mouths and there are traces of red, brown and black pigments on the surface.

The fish were constructed from two separate halves; these were joined together and loose sand introduced into the interior cavity before firing, allowing them to be used as percussion instruments. These instruments may have been used for beating a rhythm while dancing or performing, although it is not certain whether they were played by the dancers themselves or by separate instrumentalists.

Other percussion instruments of a different shape were found in the same tomb.

Bronze steamer and cauldron

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Height: 44.5 cm; Maximum diameter: 38 cm
Excavated at Yangguishan in 2005
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

This set of bronze vessels comes from one of the many pits surrounding an as yet unopened tomb, probably that of the consort of the king who was buried at Shizishan close to where Yangguishan is located. The set consists of a steamer zeng whose foot ring perfectly fits the cauldron fu below. The cauldron would have been filled with water and placed on a tripod over fire. The steam that built up would escape through the perforations in the steamer, allowing the food to cook. Alternatively, the cauldron and steamer could be placed on a stove resting on the four projections that are cast on where the circumference is widest. Two loop handles on each allow both steamer and cauldron to be lifted. Models of stoves holding steamers and cauldrons illustrating such use have been found in Han period tombs, such as in a Western Han period burial excavated in Luoyang, Henan.

This combination of vessels became popular from the mid-to late Western Han period (first century BC). Previously, a legged cauldron that sat directly on the fire without a tripod or stove had been used. Bronze steamer sets are seen less frequently in the Eastern Han period and 157 later and it is probable that vessels made of iron replaced them. The majority of sets of steamer and cauldron were made from pottery. Steaming was an essential part of Han period cuisine and zeng and fu, as a set, were used to prepare grains.

Bronze ginger grater

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Length: 13.3 cm; Height: 5.2 cm
Excavated at Xianggangshan in 1983
The Museum of the King of Nanyue, Guangdong Province

This was found at the northern wall in the entrance area of the western side chamber. Another larger grater, also made of bronze, was found in the back storage chamber inside a ding. It has been suggested that it was used to grate ginger or extract plant juices through grating: positioned on its feet, the grater was held by the double loop attached to the rectangular grating section. Fresh ginger could be grated through the rows of knobs. The juices could be drained by slightly tilting the object and letting them escape through the holes in the bowl, when the juices would be collected in a vessel. When not in use, the object could be hung on a hook with the ring handle that is attached to the bowl. While this function seems plausible as directly gauged from the item itself, this conclusion was drawn by analogy with similar devices still used by peoples in the Lingnan region and Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi and Hunan Provinces, today. These are not made from bronze but mostly from bamboo, but they are mainly used for grating ginger.

Ginger was already known in China in the first millennium BC if not earlier, where it had been cultivated in the southern and central provinces. It has a long and illustrious history in China and was used during the Han period. Finds of ginger were made in tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui and references exist showing that ginger was often used in feasts of the period.

Jade ornament with animal mask

Second century bc, Western Han dynasty
Length: 16.7 cm; Width: 13.8 cm
Excavated at Xianggangshan in 1983
The Museum of the King of Nanyue, Guangdong Province

 

This jade ornament with a mythical animal mask was obviously copied from a bronze door-knocker. It was found on the forehead of the King of Nanyue. It was carved out of one piece of jade in openwork style and consists of a rectangular animal head at the centre with a disc hanging from its nostrils, and an additional feline dragon attached to the left side of the mask. This type of asymmetrical design is very unusual in Chinese art. Most of the surface of this jade piece has suffered serious calcification and only the nose of the mask and a small portion of the disc still retain the original green colour. The back of this jade is without any decoration.

Tiger-shaped bronze jie

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Length: 19 cm; Height: 11.6 cm
Excavated at Xianggangshan in 1983
The Museum of the King of Nanyue, Guangdong Province

 

This bronze jie was moulded flat in the shape of a crouching tiger with wide-open jaws and a curled tail. The body is embellished with sixty fine gold foil strips to represent tiger stripes. Across the middle of the jie are five gilt characters, which read ‘The king orders the mustering of troops’.

Jie were used to convey orders and messages for military and diplomatic purpose in ancient China. However, jie have not often been found in archaeological excavations. To date, a bamboo-shaped jie has been found in the Anhui Province and a bronze dragon-shaped jie in Hunan. Both pieces are linked to Chu culture. This tiger-shaped jie is the only gilt one found so far. Judging from the characteristics of this jie, it is possibly from the Chu region. It was wrapped in silk and stored in the western chamber.

Gold seal with ornamental dragon knob

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Length: 3.1 cm; Width: 3 cm; Height: 1.8 cm
Excavated at Xianggangshan in 1983
The Museum of the King of Nanyue, Guangdong Province

This gold seal incised wendi xingxi (Administrative Seal of Emperor Wen), together with two plain jade seals, was found inside a lacquer box on the chest of the King of Nanyue. The seal is cast with a dragon knob with the dragon’s scales and claws incised afterwards. The four characters on the surface were separated by a frame design. Signs of wear and tear on the surface of the seal and the walls of the inkpad suggest that the seal may have been used during his lifetime.

Compared with other seals excavated to date, this seal is unique in many ways. First, most seals belonging to imperial family members, including those from Xuzhou, were cast in gold with turtle knobs. The seals found in Han vassal kingdoms, such as Japan and Dian, or present-day Yunnan Province and part of Vietnam, are cast in gold with snake knobs. This is the only example of a dragon-knob seal excavated so far. Second, the inscription on this seal, wendi xingxi, is different from the usual references to ‘emperor’ in texts from the period as huangdi xingxi, and suggests that Nanyue did claim independence. Third, the size of this seal is larger than those belonging to members of the imperial family (usually between 2.7 and 2.8 centimetres). This is the largest gold seal that has been found from the Western Han period.The evidence shows that Zhao Mo, like his grandfather, ignored the authority of the Han emperor and declared himself Emperor of Nanyue kingdom.

Jade weight in the form of a bear

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Length: 20.3 cm; Width: 8.3 cm; Height: 6.6 cm
Excavated at Beidongshan in 1986
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

This weight in the form of a bear was carved from a piece of greyish-green jade stone. It depicts a crouching bear resting on its front paws with a collar around its neck, suggesting it was a tamed animal. The details of the bear, including the tail and ruff, are incised with fine lines. Judging from the stone and bronze lion weights found in Shizishan, a stone tiger weight from the tomb at Jushan in Pizhou and this jade bear from the tomb at Beidongshan, the keeping of exotic wild animals in captivity was popular among the Kings of Chu.

Jade cup (zhi)

Second century BC, Western Han dynasty
Height: 11.8 cm; Diameter: 6.7 cm
Excavated at Shizishan in 1994–5
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

This jade cup was carved from a semi- translucent yellowish-green jade. It has a cylindrical body, three animal-mask feet and a five-petal flower lid. The majority of such drinking vessels were made of earthenware or lacquer; few were made of bronze or jade. Some examples have a ringed handle, such as the one from the tomb of the King of Nanyue. To date, two similar examples have been found in the tomb at Chaohu, An’hui Province.

This drinking vessel is referred to as a zhi in both the Shiji and the Hanshu. Both texts refer to an event when Liu Bang, founder of the Han dynasty, raised a jade cup, or yu zhi, and drank a toast to the long life of his father, referred to as the Grand Emperor after Liu Bang’s accession. That cup is believed to be similar in design to this one. Jade itself represents durability and longevity and may have been regarded as possessing special powers – that of conferring long life or immortality – when used for drinking and eating. A similar vessel, with a different pattern and lid, is in the collection of the Palace Museum in Beijing.

Jade coffin

Second century bc, Western Han dynasty
Length: 280 cm; Width: 110 cm; Height: 108 cm
Excavated at Shizishan in 1994–5
Xuzhou Museum, Jiangsu Province

This coffin has been reconstructed. During the course of serious looting, a total of 1,781 jade plaques were scattered along the tomb passages, in the fifth eastern chamber and in the fifth western chamber. The plaques were carved into a variety of shapes (triangular, square, rectangular, rhomboid and arching). The majority have inscriptions on the back, which indicate their size and their position on the coffin. These jade plaques were meant to encase a lacquer coffin.

On each side of the coffin are five large rectangular jade plaques that were decorated with a jade disc design.Two large uncovered lacquer spaces on the sides of the coffin may symbolize doors, allowing the spirit of the deceased to get in and out. This is like an outer coffin found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng.

A total of 2,095 jade plaques were removed to reconstruct this coffin, and it is the largest jade coffin found to date. Originally it would have contained an inner coffin. Gold, jade and turquoise nails were inserted into the coffin, but only a few survived intact.

Lacquer coffins inlaid with jade discs have also been found in the tombs of the kings and queens of the Guangling kingdom at Gaoyou, Jiangsu Province and of the King of Chu at Beidongshan, Xuzhou. The inner coffin of the consort of the first King of Zhongshan at Mancheng, Hebei Province was inlaid with 192 jade tiles on the inside and 26 jade discs on the outside. Imperial family members buried in a jade suit were not necessarily buried in a jade coffin, but those buried in a jade coffin always had a jade suit. This implies that those buried in jade coffins had higher status, regardless of gender.